Sorry, I should clarify. The remains of two 800 year old witches were found – along with a bunch of interesting artifacts. The womyn’s bodies were identified as witches by how they were buried and other cultural indicators.

You may be curious how witches are distinguished from normal human remains. No, there’s no DNA test or any other biological anthropological method of discernment. Rather, as my History of Witchcraft class has taught me, witches and consequential witch hunts are mainly a product of social conditions, like religious turmoil, social distress, misogyny and the classic need for a scapegoat in society.

Though this thought pattern, supported by many historical analyses of witchcraft, ignores the magical, exciting supernatural world that could be vibrating around us, one intriguing (unexplained) idea remains with me from the first week of class:

In very early periods, before large paths of cross-cultural communication were established, accounts of witches, witchcraft and sorcery sprung up consistently in many cultures with scary similarities – namely, the archetypal witch as an old womyn with little pets, a tendency to gallivant at night and the ability to bend the world at her fingertips.

This idea still tickles me a little even after a couple of weeks of class, approaching witches through a realist lens – seeing social phenomenon as the favorable explanation. However, I like to imagine there could be an entire unexplored world that historians don’t have the tools to thoroughly investigate.

An article I recently read claimed that “teens who send more than 120 texts a day are more likely to have sex or used alcohol or illegal drugs than peers who text less.”

Hmm. How exactly did they run this study?

In the survey of 4,200 Cleveland-area high school students, 20% were designated as hyper-texters; about 11% were considered hyper-networkers, who reported spending three or more hours per day on social networking sites like Facebook and MySpace. About 4% of students both hyper-texted and hyper-networked.

The hyper-texters were 3.5 more likely to have had sex than teens who texted less. The hyper-networkers, however, were not more likely to have had sex compared with the hyper-texters, but they did exceed the texters’ predilection for fighting, drinking and drug use.

To be honest, studies like these really make me angry. It’s important that this kind of information is presented to the public in a way that the actual findings are clear. Just because teens text a lot doesn’t automatically make them candidates for risky behavior. These two variables may be correlated to a number of others such as being impetuous, being social, and the big one– peer pressure.

Though this particular study may have somewhat reasonable structure, many others (especially the ones that make it to the news networks) do not. Sometimes it’s good to be a little skeptical about the things you read.

(Image by Zawezome used under a Creative Commons license.)

Are you white? Well, odds are that you subconsciously hold some racist beliefs. Yale university has developed a new experimental method called the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to probe the depths of people’s unconscious attitudes and beliefs. Experimental results from IAT studies have shown that “88% of white Americans and a startling 48% ofAfrican Americans show a bias in favor of whites on this test.” Staggering numbers.

So how does the IAT work? Maia Szalavitz of Time Magazine explains:

The IAT — which involves categorizing words and faces — is based on the simple premise that harder tasks take longer to do. So, for example, if a person is slower at pairing positive attributes with African Americans than with whites, it would suggest that he or she has an implicit bias against blacks. The test has been adapted to measure virtually every type of bias, including race, gender, sexual orientation, religion and even tendency toward suicide.

This last measurement intrigued me the most. It turns out that the IAT doesn’t just produce interesting but useful trivia.  An IAT study that tested people’s association betweens self and death predicted suicides much better than other psychological tests (such as evaluating risk factors like depression). “People with high levels of such associations were six times more likely to attempt suicide within six months than people who did not exhibit the same bias.”

The fact that people have such high biases in favor of or against different races doesn’t come as much of a surprise when you think about it.  Such biases tend to form spontaneously on the basis of all sorts of differences among groups of people. Imagine we condensed all of the students on UM’s campus into one race, the “Maize People.” That wouldn’t change the fact that social hierarchies would form based on people’s intelligence, lifestyle, involvement within various clubs and organization, etc. The only thing it would change is the fact that tests such as the IAT would no longer be helpful. The social problems would still be there.

(Image courtesy of sxc.hu)

–Tanya Rogovyk

by: Nils Stannik

There are very few people nowadays that would honestly argue that renewable energy is neither a necessity nor an inevitability. Granted, there are still some deniers, but clean, renewable energy will undoubtedly play an important role in our nation’s and the world’s future. This is becoming more apparent every day.

That being said, there is still much debate about how soon, how quickly, and how widespread the reach of green technologies will be in our society. Hot on the heels of this in debate often comes the question of how we should approach the implementation of renewable energy (and “green technology” in general). The two schools of thought on this question can be categorized generally as “short-term,” with immediate actions and adjustments on the way, or “long-term,” with public and private sectors collaborating to create a detailed strategy and delaying action until the plan is perfect.

Initially, this may seem like a difficult decision, especially since no one knows exactly how the implementation of green technologies will play out on a large scale. Realistically, however, the short-term approach is the only one that will do the most good.

Firstly, it is likely that any plan developed under the long term approach would not be strong enough to make the drastic changes that we need, due to the burdensome forces of industry and politics. A long-term plan would also not be implemented soon enough to have a positive effect on climate change. Even the most perfect, well thought-out plan executed ten years from now would be too late. We need action now.

A long-term approach is likely to stifle current action and innovation in favor of research and planning.

Although research and planning are necessary parts of any plan, it’s too late to hope we can solve this problem in a lab alone. The problem of climate change will be solved in the field. The Earth continues to warm at an alarming rate, and we have yet to experience the full brunt of the carbon dioxide emitted in the mid- to late 1990s.

Finally, a successful renewable energy implementation plan requires a constant sense of urgency and of the need for change. Although 100 percent renewable energy production by 2080 may be an excellent goal in theory, it is too far removed from the present for most humans to grasp, especially when our current politicians will be dead by then. Shorter-term (but equally effective) goals like 2 percent carbon-dioxide emission reduction per year and 2 percent more renewable energy production per year are much more effective. An annual goal will create a necessary sense of urgency with the public, politicians, and industry leaders.

It will be argued that today’s renewable energy technologies are simply not enough to feed the world’s growing energy demand, and that an appropriate replacement for coal must be discovered before we dive in head-first. Fundamentally, it is true that today’s renewable energy technologies are not enough to fill our current energy needs; however, this argument doesn’t hold water in a number of ways. What if there is simply no magical replacement for coal? Also, there is always the possibility that replacing coal could only happen through a variety of energy sources, and not some miracle product. If this is the case (which is increasingly likely), we could waste years (if not decades) searching for a Holy Grail of Energy that simply does not exist – years that will cost billions of dollars and irreversible damage to our planet. A combination of a Manhattan Project-size scale up of renewable energy, a world-wide slowing in energy demand growth and the more widespread use of nuclear and hydro power as coal replacements is far more effective than crossing our fingers and hoping for a miracle.

Research, planning, and long-term perspectives are not only important to a healthier planet and better society, they are imperative. The danger arises when we choose research instead of execution, planning instead of action, and long-term perspectives instead of short-term realities. Every day we add 15 million tons of carbon to the atmosphere. Every day we lose 75,000 acres of rainforest to desertification. Every day we lose 70 unique species of flora and fauna. Long-term planning is important, but now is the time to act.

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Or Later?

by: Gareth Collins

Clean energy is more than a fad; it is the future of America. Creating vast amounts of carbon-free energy is a necessary precondition for long-term economic growth in the 21st century.  Doubters should look no further than the dizzying amount of cash both public and private stakeholders around the world are investing in clean energy.  After years of relative inaction, the United States is far from being a leader on energy efficiency.  Though, there is good news: with the economy in the toilet and the political will focused on climate change and clean energy, in addition to legislation finally being generated, there exists excellent opportunities for the U.S. to enhance its competitive advantages through smart policies.

Vast amounts of carbon-free energy is a necessary precondition for long-term economic growth.

At present, the utility industry is dominated by coal, a plentiful fossil fuel that is cheap to extract and burn.  However, factoring in the atmospheric pollution released during power generation, burning coal is expensive.  Scientists and economists have known this for decades but only in recent years have we seen a rapid shift towards clean energy.

States like Texas and California are diversifying their energy portfolios with heavy expansion to wind and solar power, respectively.   They are not alone; a majority of states now have laws that mandate increases in clean energy production.  These changes are having real impacts. For a variety of reasons, including the rapid expansion of renewable energy, the United States has started to reduce its overall carbon dioxide emissions.  According to the Washington Post, CO2 emissions have decreased by 9 percent since 2007.  This illustrates how laws with the long-term in mind, such as those that mandate emissions reductions, are precisely what we need right now.

This is hardly the time to get complacent.  Although plenty of critical policy innovation has occurred at the state level, the federal government has been slow in throwing its resources behind the green technology revolution in the same way that other countries have.  Plenty of progress has been made on regulatory efficiency standards, but many standards do not go far enough.

Take the new Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard (CAFE), for example: the most recent bump in vehicle mpg requirements still leaves the US far behind countries like China, Japan, and Europe.  To avoid the worst impacts of climate change, we will need to see dramatic reductions in vehicle emissions.   With the only other likely recourse being a dramatic increase in gasoline taxes, which are politically precarious at best, it’s fair to say that CAFE will have to catch up with the rest of the world.

Automakers already have the resources to reduce emissions, y et they do not have the incentives to apply changes to mass production.  Electric vehicles are slowly making their way to market, but consumers have to pay significantly more for them.  If the government could further subsidize these vehicles, we might see widespread adoption considerably sooner.
How do electric vehicles relate to clean energy?  Their greatest advantage is that they can derive energy from a diversity of sources.  Imagine powering our nation’s fleet of vehicles with carbon-free energy like wind, solar, geothermal, and nuclear power.  The increase in demand for electric power associated with plugging in millions of electric vehicles would have far-reaching effects.  Doing this to the auto industry would help spur research for long-term environmental progress. It very well might start a green energy revolution that would create millions of jobs, spur rapid advances in technology, and end our addiction to foreign oil.

Meanwhile, the rest of the world—especially the developing world—could be busy rapidly installing their own 21st century energy infrastructure.  This represents a giant economic opportunity for businesses and individuals that specialize in clean energy policy, investments, technology, and construction.

This profitable endgame scenario should be in every policy  maker’s mind when she contemplates how her decisions affect energy, the economy, and education.   The future is fast approaching, but there are ways in which Washington can bring us there even faster.

The upcoming cap-and-trade bill, while not  perfect, would accelerate our transition to a clean energy economy.  One of the benefits to the cap-and-trade system is that it incentivizes individual companies to research and develop. Another slightly less prominent (but also relevant) piece of upcoming legislation is Senator Sherrod Brown’s “Investments for Manufacturing Progress and Clean Technology”.  IMPACT would create a $30 billion revolving loan fund for states to aid expansion of domestic clean energy manufacturing, and may well be in the final version of the climate bill when the Senate votes.

In this case, the risks of investment are negated by the incredible rewards that come from building an economy around clean energy. Energy is a complex issue that is intertwined with many others, so solving energy problems will inevitably solve other ones.  Although current trends suggest that we are already well on our way to a future in which the energy landscape is dominated by renewables, much work remains. If Washington plays its cards right, this work will allow the US to experience massive economic benefits. The clean energy race is on, and the winner stands to reap the reward.

edited by: Eric Eaton